Name: __________________________  Date: _____________

1.	How do historians study the past?	
A)	They mainly concentrate on written documents to determine the attitudes of a people.	
B)	They privilege physical artifacts, such as bones and buildings, over written documents.	
C)	They use the same methods as archaeologists to obtain information.	
D)	They study only public writings and ignore biased personal writings.	

2.	The distinction between the study of humans by archaeologists and the study of humans by historians is often denoted by the	
A)	development of architecture.	
B)	use of fire.	
C)	invention of writing.	
D)	use of verbal language.	

3.	Though ancient Americans lacked writing skills, they	
A)	knew how to read.	
B)	shared a common spoken language.	
C)	left detailed records of births and deaths.	
D)	used other kinds of symbolic representation.	

4.	How do modern archaeologists study ancient peoples?	
A)	They rely only on written documents.	
B)	They rely only on what they can learn from artifacts.	
C)	They combine a variety of approaches.	
D)	They make an educated guess based on a specific natural environment.	

5.	What was the reason for the early, prolonged absence of humans in the Western Hemisphere?	
A)	The warm climate of Africa attracted most of the earth's population.	
B)	Large herds of mammoths made migration to the Americas too dangerous.	
C)	North and South America had become detached from the continent of Pangaea.	
D)	Plentiful food made it unnecessary for northern European tribes to seek a different home.	

6.	How did climate change allow hunters to reach the Western Hemisphere?	
A)	It raised the sea level of the Bering Strait to allow ships to pass submerged icebergs.	
B)	More moderate temperatures allowed people to live farther north and east.	
C)	A long cold spell created the wide land bridge of Beringia.	
D)	The change in climate killed off threatening herds of mammoths and bison.	

7.	Although experts debate the exact time people began migrating to North America, the first migrants probably arrived	
A)	around 25,000 BP.	
B)	around 15,000 BP.	
C)	more than 1.5 million years ago.	
D)	fewer than 5,000 years ago.	

8.	How long did it take Paleo-Indians to migrate throughout the Western Hemisphere after their initial arrival?	
A)	50 years	
B)	100 years	
C)	1,000 years	
D)	10,000 years	

9.	What do the artifacts that have survived from the Paleo-Indian era suggest about the first Americans?	
A)	They specialized in hunting big mammals.	
B)	They developed permanent settlements along the Canadian Rockies.	
C)	They used bows and arrows to kill small animals.	
D)	They ate no plant foods.	

10.	About 11,000 years ago, the Paleo-Indians faced a major crisis because	
A)	the temperature cooled dramatically, making it more difficult to live.	
B)	the large animals they hunted had difficulty adapting to a warming climate.	
C)	hunters had killed too many small animals, eliminating the food sources of the large mammals.	
D)	a lengthy drought led to a massive shortage of edible plants.	

11.	How did Native American cultures adapt to the extinction of big game?	
A)	Native Americans adopted stationary agriculture.	
B)	Paleo-Indians domesticated larger animals.	
C)	Native Americans moved only to warm climates.	
D)	Paleo-Indians began foraging wild plant foods.	

12.	When Europeans arrived in 1492, Native American cultures were	
A)	dying off due to lack of food and environmental problems.	
B)	characterized by an impressive level of similarity and unity.	
C)	divided into about twenty groups whose members shared cultural traits.	
D)	so varied that they defy easy and simple description.	

13.	What does the term Archaic describe?	
A)	Hunting and gathering cultures that descended from Paleo-Indians	
B)	Agricultural cultures that preceded the Paleo-Indians before 13,000 BP	
C)	The historical events that occurred from AD 800 to AD1500	
D)	The historical era that begins with the development of agriculture	

14.	Which of the following is an accurate description of Archaic Indians?	
A)	They depended solely on agriculture for food.	
B)	Most established permanent, though small, villages.	
C)	They hunted smaller game with traps, nets, and hooks.	
D)	They domesticated animals as a food source.	

15.	Archaic Indians who hunted the bison herds of the Great Plains were	
A)	skilled horsemen who utilized speed to catch animals.	
B)	nomads who moved constantly with their prey.	
C)	solitary hunters who attacked animals as they slept.	
D)	cautious hunters who avoided stampeding the herds.	

16.	How did the introduction of bows and arrows affect Archaic Indians?	
A)	Bows permitted hunters to wound animals from farther away.	
B)	Indians traded the costly bows and arrows for food.	
C)	Arrowheads were larger and heavier than spear points but equally effective.	
D)	New weapons allowed Great Plains hunters to abandon their nomadic lifestyle.	

17.	The Archaic Indians in the Great Basin inhabited a region with	
A)	moderate temperature variations.	
B)	few game animals and waterfowl.	
C)	predominantly desert topography.	
D)	great environmental diversity.	

18.	What was the main source of food for Archaic peoples inhabiting the Great Basin?	
A)	Bison	
B)	Fish	
C)	Plants	
D)	Waterfowl	

19.	Why did native peoples in California remain hunters and gatherers for hundreds of years after Europeans arrived in the Western Hemisphere?	
A)	Little competition existed for food sources in California.	
B)	Both land and ocean provided an abundant food supply.	
C)	The California peoples ate only fish and marine life.	
D)	The few tribes in the region shared acorn-gathering territory.	

20.	Archaeological evidence indicates that the California Chumash culture was characterized by	
A)	a highly nomadic existence.	
B)	a surprisingly peaceful society.	
C)	relatively permanent villages.	
D)	a population living on the edge of starvation.	

21.	Archaic Northwest peoples took advantage of which plentiful resource for sustenance and for trade?	
A)	Fish	
B)	Acorns	
C)	Bison	
D)	Deer	

22.	What environmental factor shaped the cultures of the Archaic peoples of the Eastern Woodland?	
A)	Mountains	
B)	Forests	
C)	A desert	
D)	The seacoast	

23.	Early Woodland Indians obtained food by	
A)	hunting deer.	
B)	harvesting wild corn.	
C)	fishing for salmon.	
D)	growing a variety of crops.	

24.	How did the diet and culture of Woodland peoples change around 4000 BP?	
A)	They stopped eating wild plants, seeds, and nuts.	
B)	They abandoned their hunting-gathering lifestyle.	
C)	They began focusing less on hunting and more on plant gathering.	
D)	They adopted limited forms of plant growing.	

25.	According to Map 1.2: Native North American Cultures, what was among the most important factors in setting boundaries between ancient cultures?
	
A)	Different environmental features	
B)	Distinct political systems	
C)	Distinct language systems	
D)	Different religions	

26.	How did agriculture change Archaic cultures?	
A)	It encouraged the gradual establishment of permanent settlements.	
B)	It discouraged permanent settlements and encouraged mobility.	
C)	It quickly led to the disappearance of the hunter-gatherer lifestyle.	
D)	It made Native Americans more vulnerable to disease.	

27.	Why did Archaic cultures in the Southwest adopt agriculture?	
A)	Their climate produced predictable amounts of rainfall.	
B)	Fertile soil yielded surplus quantities of wild plant food.	
C)	There were fewer animals for hunting in the Southwest.	
D)	The supply of wild plant food was highly unreliable.	

28.	When did corn become a food crop for southwestern cultures?	
A)	AD 1620	
B)	AD 1492	
C)	3500 BP	
D)	6000 BP	

29.	What does this ancient petroglyph tell us about the people who made it?
	
A)	The people who crafted this were part of a farming society.	
B)	The people who crafted this were part of a hunting society.	
C)	Only women were hunters in this society.	
D)	This society honored its dead with large murals.	

30.	What feature characterized the settlements of the Mogollon culture?	
A)	Hierarchical political organization	
B)	Mound-building	
C)	Elaborate irrigation systems	
D)	Pit houses	

31.	What can be inferred from the drawing “Florida Woman”?
	
A)	That Florida had unique crops not found in other parts of America	
B)	That Native American women were more associated with food practices than their male counterparts	
C)	That corn was a major contribution of Native Americans to the rest of the world	
D)	That native people had many varied ways of preparing corn	

32.	The European artist of “Ancient Agriculture” misrepresented native agricultural practices in what way?
	
A)	The person in the drawing is male, whereas women did the bulk of agricultural work.	
B)	The person in the drawing is alone, whereas agricultural work was always done in groups.	
C)	The drawing includes corn, which was not a staple of Native American agriculture.	
D)	The farmer would not have been sowing new crops while other crops were bearing fruit for harvest.	

33.	The Anasazi culture disappeared due to	
A)	a drought that lasted more than fifty years.	
B)	the Anasazi's loss of a series of wars with neighboring groups.	
C)	reasons that remain a mystery to scholars.	
D)	the exodus of Anasazi to the land of the great bison.	

34.	What can historians learn about the Anasazi people from their effigy figures?
	
A)	That the Anasazi demonstrated sophisticated pottery methods	
B)	That human effigies were extremely common among the Anasazi	
C)	That the Anasazi people held unique burial practices that were not found elsewhere in America	
D)	That the Anasazi were a warlike people	

35.	Why do archaeologists believe that the first ancient Woodland mound builders were organized into chiefdoms?	
A)	The legend of one chief has survived for thousands of years in the local Indian culture.	
B)	The lack of artifacts inside the mounds indicates that chiefs seized all valuables.	
C)	The complexity of the mounds suggests that one chief commanded labor from others.	
D)	Ancient peoples had a tendency to organize themselves into chiefdoms.	

36.	What does analysis of artifacts in burial mounds reveal about the Hopewell chiefdom?	
A)	The people did not engage in trade with other tribes.	
B)	The people lacked sophisticated artisan skills.	
C)	Its trade network stretched across the continent.	
D)	Most chiefs rejected lavish personal effects.	

37.	Scholars speculate that Hopewell culture declined because	
A)	farming and new weapons made central authority unnecessary.	
B)	repeated droughts wiped out the local food supply.	
C)	a mysterious disease suddenly killed the entire population.	
D)	their desire for conquest led them to overextend their military forces.	

38.	Experts believe that the Cahokians used woodhenges for	
A)	political ceremonies.	
B)	religious rituals.	
C)	burial sites.	
D)	celestial observations.	

39.	What is a prudent estimate of the population of Native Americans in North America at the time of Columbus's arrival in the New World?	
A)	500,000	
B)	1 million	
C)	4 million	
D)	15 million	

40.	Although the two regions had roughly the same population in 1492, the population density of North America was	
A)	much greater than that of England.	
B)	much less than that of England.	
C)	about the same as that of England.	
D)	greater than that of England in some areas and less than that of England in others.	

41.	Eastern Woodland peoples around the time of Columbus's arrival in 1492 clustered into which three major groups?	
A)	Algonquian, Iroquoian, and Muskogean peoples	
B)	Pawnee, Mandan, and Comanche tribes	
C)	Apache, Navajo, and Hopi tribes	
D)	Sioux, Cheyenne, and Blackfeet peoples	

42.	The League of Five Nations, which remained powerful well into the eighteenth century, was formed as	
A)	an alliance among European nations to promote New World exploration.	
B)	a confederation of the Aztec tribes for the purpose of establishing a trade network.	
C)	an alliance of Algonquian tribes to perpetuate their nomadic existence.	
D)	a confederation of the Iroquoian tribes for the purposes of war and diplomacy.	

43.	The Athapascan tribes—mainly Apache and Navajo—were	
A)	migrants from Mesoamerica who invaded the Southwest.	
B)	skillful warriors who preyed on the sedentary Pueblo Indians.	
C)	successful farmers who grew both corn and sunflowers.	
D)	descendants of the Anasazi who lived in settled communities.	

44.	What characteristic was common across the many tribes inhabiting North America at the dawn of European colonization?	
A)	The use of some form of written language	
B)	Dependence on hunting and gathering for most of their food	
C)	The use of domesticated animals for hunting and agricultural production	
D)	A culture developed according to local natural environments	

45.	Evidence indicates that before 1492, Native Americans	
A)	lived in peace and harmony with one another.	
B)	endured constant ethnic conflicts.	
C)	engaged in extensive religious conflicts.	
D)	practiced human sacrifice.	

46.	How did Native Americans relate to the natural environment?	
A)	They passively lived in harmony with the environment.	
B)	They adapted to it in order to make their lives easier without depleting resources.	
C)	They changed the environment in a variety of ways that served their own interests.	
D)	They deliberately and continually depleted resources while migrating to new areas.	

47.	In AD 1492, the empire of the Mexica	
A)	stretched from Brazil to Mexico.	
B)	encompassed up to 25 million people.	
C)	possessed land roughly equal to that of Spain.	
D)	traded peacefully with neighboring groups.	

48.	Which group held the most exalted position in Mexican society?	
A)	Priests	
B)	Traders	
C)	Warriors	
D)	Merchants	

49.	The Mexica used an extensive tribute system to redistribute wealth from	
A)	the poor to the rich.	
B)	the nobles to the poor.	
C)	political leaders to religious leaders.	
D)	the common people to warriors.	

50.	Spanish conquerors exploited which weakness of the Mexica empire?	
A)	The empire's subjects did not see the Mexica as legitimate or fair rulers.	
B)	The Mexica relied too heavily on trade with neighboring cultures.	
C)	The political leaders were beginning a democratic reform movement.	
D)	Diverse tribal factions were often in conflict with one another.	

51.	Evaluate the following statement about ancient Americans: The absence of written sources means that ancient human beings' history cannot be reconstructed with the detail and certainty made possible by writing.	

52.	Describe the two major developments that made it possible for human beings to migrate to the Western Hemisphere from Asia.	

53.	Describe the two major adaptations the Paleo-Indians made in their way of life as the mammoths and other large game they hunted became extinct.	

54.	Explain how the adoption of bows and arrows affected Great Plains hunters' livelihoods.	

55.	Explain the factors that contributed to cultural diversity among ancient peoples of present-day California. How did this compare with other regions of ancient America?	

56.	Describe the ways that Eastern Woodland cultures interacted with the natural environment. What challenges and opportunities did they encounter?	

57.	Discuss how climate shaped the lives of Ancient Americans in present-day Arizona, New Mexico, and southern portions of Utah and Colorado. How did southwestern Indians confront climate problems? How did they remain vulnerable?	

58.	Around 2500 BP, members of Woodland cultures in the vast Mississippi Valley began to construct burial mounds and other earthworks, suggesting the existence of social and political hierarchies that archaeologists term chiefdoms. Define chiefdoms and briefly explain what archaeologists have found in burial mounds and what these objects reveal about Woodland cultures.	

59.	The 4 million Native Americans in North America in 1492 differed in where they lived and how their cultures had adapted to their local natural environments, but they also had many similarities. Describe how these cultures were similar to one another and how they differed from the culture of Europe at the time.	

60.	Describe the size and scope of the Mexica Empire at the time of its discovery by the Europeans after 1492, and explain how it got to be so large in physical size and population.	

61.	Ancient Americans and their descendants resided in North America for thousands of years before Europeans arrived. Write an essay in which you describe how archaeological discoveries helped scholars better understand the migration of humans into the Americas, provide an overview of the origins of these first Americans and the geological conditions that facilitated their migration, and explain how the interaction between Native Americans and the environment created the astounding variety of cultures that existed when Europeans began to explore the New World.	

62.	Archaic hunters and gatherers throughout North America shared some common traits but also lived very differently. Write an essay that explains how various natural environments produced differing hunter-gatherer cultures. What implications did the variation in cultures have for archaic peoples?	

63.	Beginning about 4000 BP, distinctive southwestern cultures began to depend on agriculture and build permanent settlements. Discuss the cultures and challenges of the ancient Americans found in present-day Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and Colorado.	

64.	Scholars believe that around 2500 BP, some Woodland cultures organized as chiefdoms. These chiefdoms produced hierarchical and centralized power structures. What do the artifacts from these cultures suggest about the roles played by chiefs? Why were these cultures not in existence at the time of European arrival?	

65.	When the first European explorers encountered the culture of the Mexica in the late fifteenth century, they were astounded at the complexity of Mexican society and the wealth of their empire. Explain the conditions existing within this culture that made possible the achievements of the Mexica. Include a discussion of the power structure that permeated and controlled their society.	

Use the following to answer questions 66-77:

A) pueblos
B) burial mounds
C) Clovis points
D) Mexica
E) Pueblo Bonito
F) Archaic Indians  
G) Cahokia
H) Paleo-Indians
I) Beringia
J) tribute
K) chiefdom
L) hunter-gatherer

66.	The goods the Mexica collected from conquered peoples, from basic food products to candidates for human sacrifice.	

67.	The largest ceremonial site in ancient North America—located on the eastern bank of the Mississippi River, across from present-day St. Louis—where thousands of inhabitants built hundreds of earthen mounds between about a.d. 800 and a.d. 1500.	

68.	Hunting-gathering peoples who descended from Paleo-Indians and dominated the Americas from approximately 10,000 b.p. to between 4000 b.p. and 3000 b.p.	

69.	Archaeologists' term for the first migrants into North America and their descendants who spread across the Americas between approximately 15,000 b.p. and 13,500  b.p.	

70.	Earthen constructions by ancient American peoples, especially throughout the gigantic drainage of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, after about 2500 b.p.; they were often used to bury important leaders and to enact major ceremonies.	

71.	Multi-unit dwellings, storage spaces, and ceremonial centers—often termed kivas—built by ancient Americans in the Southwest for centuries around a.d. 1000.	

72.	The largest residential and ceremonial site, containing more than 600 rooms and 35 kivas, in the major Anasazi cultural center of Chaco Canyon in present-day New Mexico.	

73.	An empire that stretched from coast to coast across central Mexico and encompassed as many as 25 million people. Their culture was characterized by steep hierarchy and devotion to the war god Huitzilopochtli.	

74.	Hierarchical social organization headed by a chief. Archaeologists posit that the Woodland cultures were organized in this way because the construction of their characteristic burial mounds likely required one person having command over the labor of others.	

75.	A way of life that involved procuring game and vegetation naturally, as opposed to engaging in agriculture and animal husbandry. Archaic Indians and their descendants in North America used this means of subsistence for centuries.	

76.	Distinctively shaped spearheads used by Paleo-Indians and named for the place in New Mexico where they were first excavated.	

77.	The land bridge between Siberia and Alaska that was exposed by the Wisconsin glaciation, allowing people to migrate into the Western Hemisphere.	

Answer Key

1.	A	
2.	C	
3.	D	
4.	C	
5.	C	
6.	C	
7.	B	
8.	C	
9.	A	
10.	B	
11.	D	
12.	D	
13.	A	
14.	C	
15.	B	
16.	A	
17.	D	
18.	C	
19.	B	
20.	C	
21.	A	
22.	B	
23.	A	
24.	D	
25.	A	
26.	A	
27.	D	
28.	C	
29.	B	
30.	D	
31.	C	
32.	A	
33.	A	
34.	A	
35.	C	
36.	C	
37.	A	
38.	D	
39.	C	
40.	B	
41.	A	
42.	D	
43.	B	
44.	D	
45.	D	
46.	C	
47.	B	
48.	C	
49.	A	
50.	A	
51.	Answer would ideally include:
Written Sources: The absence of written sources about ancient Americans means that we cannot know about their individual lives with any certainty. We can, however, use artifacts and environmental features to understand some elements of the places they inhabited and cultures they established.
Artifacts: Archaeologists focus on artifacts such as bones, spear points, pots, baskets, and buildings. Weapons and tools give us some information about the diversity of ancient Americans' diets and their adaptations to their environments. In addition, archaeologists study soil, climate, and other environmental features in order to partially reconstruct the world inhabited by ancient Americans.	
52.	Answer would ideally include:
Adaptation to a New Environment: Humans who migrated from Africa into present-day Europe and Asia learned to adapt to the frigid environment near the Arctic Circle. They learned to use bone needles to sew animal skins into warm clothing that allowed them to live permanently in cold regions, and they also learned to hunt the large game animals that lived there.
A Path to North America: A global cold spell lowered the sea level and exposed a land bridge called Beringia, which Siberian hunters traversed to come to the North American continent.	
53.	Answer would ideally include:
Change of Game: The Paleo-Indians adapted primarily to the extinction of mammoths and other large game in North America by preying more intensively on smaller animals.
Change to Foraging for Food: Paleo-Indians devoted much more of their time and energy to foraging or gathering wild plant foods, such as roots, seeds, nuts, berries, and fruit. The switch from big-game hunting to foraging also allowed the Paleo-Indians to diversify their culture and adapt to many different environments in order to survive.	
54.	Answer would ideally include:
Ease of Hunting: With the adoption of bows and arrows in about AD 500, the Great Plains hunters' could make their hunting weapons more easily, wound animals from farther away, and shoot at prey repeatedly. They continued to hunt on foot, however, and to follow the group's age-old practices of bison hunting.	
55.	Answer would ideally include:
Environment: California had an incredibly rich natural environment that provided an ample food supply; this area became the most densely settled area in all of ancient North America.
Food Sources: The richness and diversity of the land and proximity to the ocean provided the many tribes with an abundant source of wild food and other natural resources. As a result, California peoples remained hunters and gatherers for hundreds of years, unlike some other peoples of ancient America who began to cultivate crops	
56.	Answer would ideally include:
Forest Environment: Eastern Woodland peoples adapted to a forest environment that included local variants such as river valleys, the Great Lakes, and the Atlantic coast. All Woodland groups made deer—which provided food as well as hides and bones that could be crafted into clothing, weapons, and other tools—their most important prey. These groups also gathered edible plants, seeds, and nuts. They established small, permanent settlements near rivers and lakes that provided additional plant and animal resources. After 4000 BP, these cultures also added agriculture and pottery to their lifestyles.
Life Expectancy: Their primary challenge was their short life expectancy (eighteen years), which must have made it difficult for them to learn and teach all the skills necessary to survive, reproduce, and adapt to change.	
57.	Answer would ideally include:
Climate Adaptations: Southwestern peoples confronted a dry climate and unpredictable fluctuations in rainfall. As a result, the supply of wild plant food was very unreliable. These ancient Americans probably adopted agriculture in response to environmental uncertainty. They began to cultivate corn, and they became irrigation experts, conserving water from streams, springs, and rainfall and distributing it to crops.
Continued Vulnerability: The Hohokam may have declined due to rising salinity in the soil, and drought triggered the disappearance of the Anasazi.	
58.	Answer would ideally include:
Chiefdoms: Chiefdoms are a form of social and political hierarchy in which one person—a chief—commands the labor and obedience of a very large number of other people. Archaeologists believe that Woodland cultures in the Mississippi Valley were chiefdoms because of the existence of large, complex burial mounds that would have required an organized labor force to build.
Surviving Artifacts: The Adena people usually included grave goods such as spear points and stone pipes in their burial mounds. Hopewell people built even larger mounds and filled them with more magnificent objects. Grave goods at Hopewell sites testify to the high quality of Hopewell crafts and to a thriving trade network that ranged from present-day Wyoming to Florida.	
59.	Answer would ideally include:
Native American Practices: North America in 1492 contained a wide variety of Native American cultures, but these groups were also united by similarities, including diets, that relied on some combination of hunting, gathering, and agriculture, as well as the use of bows and arrows for hunting and warfare. None of these groups used writing, but they expressed themselves using drawings, patterns woven in baskets and textiles, and designs painted on pottery or crafted into beadwork, as well as through song, dance, religious ceremonies, and burial rites.
Cultural Differences with Europe The Native American groups were very different from European cultures at the time. Their population was much less dense. They did not use wheels or sailing ships, they had no large domesticated animals, and their use of metals was restricted to copper.	
60.	Answer would ideally include:
Mexica Empire: When Europeans encountered the Mexica Empire in 1492, it stretched from coast to coast across central Mexico. It covered more land than Spain and Portugal combined and, with a population between 8 and 25 million, contained almost three times as many people.
The Mexica Rise to Power: The Mexica Empire began its rise to prominence in AD 1325, when Mexica warriors began to act as mercenaries for richer and more settled tribes. They used their power and began to assert dominance over their former allies and led their own military campaigns aimed at building a great empire. The Mexica then forced the conquered tribes to pay tribute in the form of goods such as food, textiles, and gold—and even with human sacrifice—in order to maintain their power and wealth.	
61.	Answer would ideally include:
Summary of Archaeological Discoveries: Archaeologists study human artifacts, animal bones, and environmental features in order to paint a picture of ancient Americans. One important example is the Clovis point, which indicated human occupation of North and Central America as early as 13,500 BP to 13,000 BP. Another significant discovery was the Folsom point, which indicated that ancient Americans were hunting bison on the Great Plains as early as 10,000 BP.
Origins of First Americ The first Americans were people who had already adapted to the cold environment of present-day Siberia. A cold spell lasting from 25,000 BP to 14,000 BP exposed a land bridge between Asian Siberia and American Alaska that allowed Siberian hunters to follow herds of mammoth, bison, and other animals across that land to North America.
Reasons for Cultural Diversity: Early North American settlers shared a common ancestry and way of life that made use of the Clovis point to hunt large animals. When mammoths and other large animals became extinct in about 11,000 BP, Paleo-Indians began to prey more intensively on smaller animals and devote more energy to foraging. These changes led to great cultural diversity as Native American groups adapted hunting and gathering techniques to many different natural environments throughout the hemisphere.	
62.	Answer would ideally include:
Common Traits among Hunter/Gatherers: The Archaic cultures that descended from Paleo-Indians all relied on some combination of hunting for animals and foraging for plants to supply food. Like their Paleo-Indian ancestors, Archaic Indians hunted with spears, but they also killed smaller animals with traps, nets, and hooks. Archaic peoples also used a variety of stone tools to prepare food from wild plants. The particular ways that different groups pursued hunting, gathering, and the preparation and storage of their food, however, were shaped by their environments.
Great Plains Hunters: Archaic groups that lived on the Great Plains had access to herds of bison that grazed there, which constituted their primary food source. These groups hunted bison using Folsom points and trapping techniques, and they moved constantly to maintain contact with their prey. Around AD 500, they acquired bows and arrows from groups in the North and also used them in their hunting.
Great Basin Cultures: The Great Basin was a region of great environmental diversity. The Great Basin Indians who lived along marshes and lakes ate fish, while others killed and ate deer and antelope and smaller game. Because supplies of animal food were not consistent, all Indians in this region relied heavily on plants for food, and they developed techniques to collect and store them.
Pacific Coast Cultures: The Pacific coast had many different environments, which encouraged great diversity among the people who lived there. California contained 500 separate tribes speaking 90 languages. Plentiful food sources meant that these groups lived in permanent settlements with relatively large populations, and that some people could pursue activities that were not directly related to food production, such as woodworking. The diversity of cultures in this area allowed the development of trade but also created conflicts and warfare.
Eastern Woodland Cultures: Archaic people living in Eastern forests hunted deer for food and for the hides and bones, which they crafted into clothing, weapons, needles, and other tools. They also gathered edible plants, seeds, and nuts and, by 4000 BP, added agriculture and pottery-making to their hunter-gatherer lifestyles.
Implications of Diversity: Diverse hunter-gatherer cultures were well adapted to their particular environments, and most lasted until the Europeans' arrival in the late fifteenth century. Their low population density, small populations, reliance on hunting and gathering, and vast diversity probably made these groups more vulnerable once Europeans arrived.	
63.	Answer would ideally include:
Southwestern Cultures: All southwestern peoples were forced to adapt to dry climates and unreliable wild food supplies. Around 3500 BP, these groups began to cultivate corn; this restricted their migratory habits and led them to become irrigation experts.
Mogollon Culture: This group appeared throughout southern New Mexico about AD 200. The Mogollon settlements were based on pit houses, which may have been predecessors of kivas. The reasons for the decline of the Mogollon culture about AD 900 remain obscure.
Hohokam Culture: These people migrated into Arizona from Mexico around AD 500. Their economy was based on sophisticated irrigation canals, and their culture was heavily influenced by Mexican cultural practices. The decline of the Hohokams around AD 1400 may have been due to the rising salinity of the soil.
Anasazi Culture: The Anasazi began to flourish about AD 100, relying on irrigation much like that of their neighbors. Around AD 1000, some moved to large, multistory cliff dwellings while others developed huge, stone-walled pueblos. A fifty-year drought may have triggered the disappearance of the Anasazi culture.	
64.	Answer would ideally include:
Background on Woodland Cultures and Chiefdoms: Around 2500 BP, Eastern Woodland cultures, which relied on hunting-gathering and agriculture for food, began to construct burial mounds and other earthworks that suggest the existence of social and political hierarchies called chiefdoms.
Adena Burial Mounds: Burial mounds, such as those made by the Adena people in Ohio, were large structures that frequently contained grave goods such as spear points, stone pipes, and mica crafted into complex shapes. The size of the mounds, the labor and organization required to build them, and the differences in the artifacts buried with certain individuals suggest that one person—a chief—commanded the labor and obedience of large numbers of people who comprised his chiefdom.
Hopewell Mounds: The mounds built by the Hopewell people were even larger than those of the Adena and contained high-quality crafts. Grave goods in the Hopewell sites testify to the Hopewell's participation in a thriving trade network. Archaeologists believe the Hopewell chiefs must have played an important role in such interregional trade.
Mississippian Mounds: Major Mississippian mounds had platforms on top for ceremonies and for the residences of great chiefs. Cahokians also erected woodhenges, which may have been built for celestial observations.
Disappearance of Chiefdoms: At the time of European arrival, most Mississippi cultures lived in small dispersed villages supported by both hunting-gathering and agriculture. Chiefs no longer commanded the sweeping powers they once enjoyed. Bows and arrows, along with agriculture, may have made small settlements more self-sufficient and therefore less dependent on chiefs.	
65.	Answer would ideally include:
Background on Mexica: The empire rose to prominence by 1430 when Mexica warriors asserted their dominance over their former allies and ruled an area that geographically and demographically surpassed that of Spain and Portugal combined.
Focus on War and Empire-Building: The Mexica Empire was built and led by warriors who worshiped the war god Huitzilopochtli, and who waged constant battles against surrounding cultures to capture people for sacrifice and to demonstrate their own bravery. These warriors made up the Mexican nobility, supported by a smaller group of priests. This elite group commanded the religious and military power necessary to gain the obedience of millions of other people in the provinces.
Tribute System: Mexican leaders also used their religious and military power to collect tribute from conquered tribes. Tribute was not money but, rather, goods produced by conquered people—including textiles, basic food products, and luxury items—and candidates for human sacrifice. This system redistributed wealth from the conquered to the conquerors and made the empire's stunning achievements possible.	
66.	J	
67.	G	
68.	F	
69.	H	
70.	B	
71.	A	
72.	E	
73.	D	
74.	K	
75.	L	
76.	C	
77.	I